By: Oliva Hom and Julia Price, 2021 Summer Collaborators at Power in Place
It’s a sad reality that in this patriarchal world, female leaders face far more criticism when compared to their male counterparts. In addition to shouldering the standard challenges of the political world, female politicians must also deal with constant scrutiny of everything from their speech patterns to their clothing choices. And historically, this trend is not new. Female leaders have been unfairly criticized–often to the point of demonization–for thousands of years. It is far too often that history’s most powerful female leaders appear in textbooks not as complex women, but rather as conniving, bloodthirsty villains. Of course, there’s no way of knowing for sure what these women were like; perhaps they were as evil as history tells us. Nevertheless, it’s just as likely that many powerful women of centuries past have had their legacies incredibly distorted by the misogynistic historians of their era. If we attempt to dig through the sexist propaganda that surrounds their legacies, as many modern historians are beginning to do, we can have much more nuanced discussions about these leaders. In this post, we will examine two of the most reviled female leaders in history: Wu Zetian, China’s first female emperor, and “Bloody Mary,” England’s first queen.
Wu Zetian
Image taken from An 18th century album of portraits of 86 emperors of China, with Chinese historical notes. Originally published/produced in China, 18th century. (British Library, shelfmark Or. 2231)
Empress Wu was born in 624 CE in Wenshui (now part of Shanxi province) and died in 705 CE. Her actual reign lasted from 690-705 CE, but she effectively ruled the country from 660 CE onward. Wu was the only woman to rule China in her own right. However, her reign is anything but celebrated.
Chinese history paints Empress Wu as a demonic woman who connived her way to power through murder and deceit. In fact, historians at the time claimed that she “killed her sister, butchered her elder brothers, murdered the ruler, [and] poisoned her mother. She is hated by gods and men alike” (Dash). Historians also highlighted Wu’s scandalous personal life, portraying her as sexually promiscuous because her second husband (Emperor Gaozong) was her stepson, and she also had relationships with younger men in her later years.
It is true that in her ascent to power, Wu mercilessly eliminated her direct competition, Empress Wang, and Lady Xiao (another concubine of Gaozong). Apparently “Wu killed her own infant daughter and blamed the murder on Empress Wang. Gaozong believed this and soon dismissed his empress and promoted Wu [Zhao] to the position; she immediately put Wang and Xiao to death and exiled their relatives and supporters” (Lee). Wu was made empress in 655 CE. By 660, Emperor Gaozong’s health was declining, so Wu became the true ruler of China. After Gaozong’s death in 683, she ruled on the behalf of her sons, who were essentially puppet rulers. Eventually in 690, when Wu was 65 years old, she seized the throne for herself. She proclaimed herself emperor, and created her own dynasty, the Zhou Dynasty (690-705 CE).
As empress, Wu was ruthless but effective, and the Tang Dynasty prospered under her rule, becoming one of China’s golden ages. Some of her innovations included introducing a civil service exam system based on merit (instead of nepotism), listening to the complaints of ministers and civilians, “publishing (albeit as part of her own legitimation campaign) Biographies of Famous Women and requiring children to mourn both parents, rather than merely their father” (Dash), reforming the military, improving the agriculture system, and waging successful wars to expand the empire.
Wu’s reign came to an end in a coup in 704. Members of her court forced her to yield power to her exiled son, Zhongzong. Wu was in poor health, and died in 705. Her memorial tablet, which she had commissioned when she was empress, was left purposefully blank so future historians could compose an epitaph detailing her accomplishments.
But over a thousand years later, it still remains blank, her legacy unwritten. Despite her accomplishments, historians of her era resisted any venerations to the country’s first female leader. It is due to sexism that historians criticized her, which could have resulted in over exaggerated accounts of her actions. The double standard here is very clear. Yes, Empress Wu might’ve been a murderer or ordered the murders of others, but that’s typical for Chinese emperors, and for most male rulers in history. Wu’s ambition is only looked down upon because she was a woman who went against traditional Confucian values, which emphasized women’s subservience to men. Meanwhile, ambitious men are praised for their masculinity. This is not to excuse what Wu did but to examine the expectations of rulers that affected her. Rulers have to consolidate power by eliminating their opposition, and that’s what Empress Wu did. She did everything men did, except as a woman.
How should we remember Wu Zetian? Should we vilify her, praise her? The answer lies in the nuance of her life. We should do possibly the most difficult thing of all, analyze her by taking into account what it means to be not just a woman in ancient China, but the first woman to rule China as an emperor.
“Bloody Mary”
Portrait by Antonis Mor, 1554
Mary I of England–or, how she is popularly known, “Bloody Mary”–ruled England from 1553-1558. Like Wu Zetian, she was the first Queen to rule her country in her own right.
No other English rulers carry such a scathing title. Her own father, King Henry VIII–best known for being a ruthless and erratic tyrant who, among other atrocities, beheaded two of his own wives–had the hardly devastating epithet of “coppernose,” apparently due to his cheap currency (Barksdale). So how justified is Queen Mary I’s epithet? Was she really far bloodier than her counterparts?
It’s undeniable that Queen Mary I did authorize violence. For instance, she famously burned 258 protestants at the stake as part of her effort to reinstate Catholicism in England (Solly). That being said, religious persecution was not unique to Mary’s short reign. While the Catholic Mary indisputably burned protestants, her Protestant half-siblings Edward VI and Elizabeth I authorized the deaths of more than 6,000 Catholic rebels during their own Protestant reigns (Solly). The Tudor era was fundamentally one of extreme religious upheaval and violence.
Mary I also did far more than simply burn protestants. Although she only reigned for five years, she initiated the “financial reform, exploration and naval expansion...that would be built upon by her much lauded-successor, Elizabeth I” (Solly). In addition to being an effective ruler, her journey to becoming England’s first Queen is remarkable; she certainly defied the odds. Perhaps it would be more accurate to remember her as “Mary the Defiant.” For example, When King Henry VIII divorced Mary’s mother Catherine of Aragon, he immediately declared Mary illegitimate, removed her title of princess, and attempted to force Mary into a convent (Simons). However, the headstrong Mary never retreated into exile, and stubbornly remained at court to fight for her right to rule. Later, after her half-brother King Edward VI died, and it appeared Lady Jane Grey and her supporters would claim the throne instead of Mary, Mary still did not retreat. Instead, she rallied support throughout England and, along with her half-sister Elizabeth, proudly marched on London to claim her throne and destroy the usurper. When a protestant rebellion threatened Mary’s reign, she famously went to the people and gave a rousing speech to thousands, calling on them to defend her (Simons). In short, Mary I was defiant, headstrong, and incredibly brave. She was the first woman to rule England in her own right, and showed a sexist society that women can be just as effective and inspiring leaders as men.
So why is “Bloody Mary’s” actual story so forgotten? The reason is undoubtedly a mix of Protestant propaganda and sexism. Essentially, Mary I represented everything male English Protestants feared. Everything Catholic–especially powerful Catholic women–had to be rejected in order for the English patriarchal Protestant identity to maintain itself. Thus, historians chose to portray Mary I as a weak willed woman subject to the demands of her Spanish husband, or as an evil woman who burned innocents to sustain her bloodlust. The latter stuck, and she has been popularly remembered as “Bloody Mary” ever since.
Queen Mary I deserves better. She was far more than “bloody.” Yes, she was ruthless when necessary; but she was also a highly intelligent, brave, and utterly groundbreaking woman. Her story must be retold so we can see England’s first Queen without the the sexist and anti-Catholic propaganda that has obscured her legacy for so long.
Conclusion
It’s highly likely that Queen Mary I and Empress Wu are not the only powerful female leaders to have had their stories utterly demonized. It’s almost certain that countless female leaders have been judged unfairly by the historians who told their stories. Thus, it is essential that we begin to humanize these female leaders, and to contextualize their actions. Female leaders should certainly be allowed to be remembered as horrendous; nevertheless, their actions must be judged the same way that history has judged our most famous male leaders. It’s time we retell the stories of the women that have been reviled or forgotten by history. All women deserve to have their stories told, whether they are considered villains, heroes, or somewhere in between.
References
Barksdale, Nate. “8 Things You May Not Know About Henry VIII” HISTORY, https://www.history.com/news/8-things-you-probably-didnt-know-about-henry-viii. Accessed 21 July 2021.
Dash, Mike. “The Demonization of Empress Wu.” Smithsonian Magazine, 10 Aug. 2012, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-demonization-of-empress-wu-20743091/.
Lee, Yuen Ting. “Wu Zhao: Ruler of Tang Dynasty China.” The Association for Asian Studies, 2015, https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/wu-zhao-ruler- of-tang-dynasty-china/.
Simons, Eric Norman. “Mary I | Biography & Facts.” Encyclopedia Britannica, https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mary-I. Accessed 21 July 2021.
Solly, Meilan. “The Myth of ‘Bloody Mary.’” Smithsonian Magazine, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/myth-bloody-mary-180974221/. Accessed 21 July 2021.
Olivia Hom is a rising sophomore at Mount Holyoke College. She is interested in feminism and intersectionality in today’s world. On campus, Olivia plans to join the student newspaper. She also enjoys writing, photography, listening to music, and playing video games.
Julia Price is a rising junior at Middlebury College majoring in International and Global Studies and minoring in linguistics. She is interested in feminism and reproductive justice. She also enjoys narrative podcasts, language learning, and intramural soccer.