The suffragettes of 1880-1890: simultaneously pursuing racial justice alongside the landmark right to vote

First Issue of The Crisis: A Record of the Darker Races, November 1910. New York: NAACP, 1910.

BY: JACQUELINE QIU, 2021 WINTER COLLABORATOR AT POWER IN PLACE

The years between 1880 and 1890 yielded immense progress for achieving the reality of female enfranchisement within a historically male-dominated society. Suffragettes, especially those of color, were able to challenge patriarchal institutions, such as the denial of women’s suffrage, through influential actions based on philosophies of gender, racial, and social justice. The conjoint nature of this activism not only cultivated hope in the suffrage movement for women of color, but also in the greater movement to assert rights that are denied on the basis of one's identity. These rights were traditionally marginalized in a socioeconomic and political context and held as the standard in both cultural, social, and legal norms. Advocating for suffrage, for these women of color, is synonymous with an awareness for intersectionality of identity. The enfranchisement of women would not be truly successful if it did not account for deconstructing structural inequalities that are based in an interconnected identity of race, gender, and other forms of identity. These brave suffragette women of color tackled systemic manners of oppression in American society, such as the denial of female enfranchisement and racism, by using their unique identities to their advantage.

Frances Ellen Watkins Harper.

Frances Ellen Watkins Harper (1825-1911), as a prolific black poet, writer, and  journalist that advocated for the suffrage, and subsequent social equality, of black women. Her commitment to this conjoint gender and racial justice first began with helping slaves escape through the Underground Railroad and publishing anti-slavery journalistic works. Later, during the American Reconstruction Era, she was a prominent activist for civil rights, women’s suffrage, and equitable education opportunities for black citizens. Her advocacy was mainly done through her high status in the literary and journalism world; she is known as the “mother of African American journalism,” and one of the first black writers to popularize Africa American protest poetry. For example, her short story, The Two Offers, was the first short story published by an African American writer. Her ideals of equality and representation in literature extended into her contributions in society; Harper was a co-founder and Vice President of the National Association of Colored Women and member of the National American Woman Suffrage Association. Additionally, she was the superintendent of the Colored Section of Philadelphia and Pennsylvania Women’s Christian Temperance Union. Harper, as an extremely accomplished writer and activist, leaves an indelible mark on the history of suffragettes of color. 

Harriet Purvis, Jr. , circa 1874.

Harriet (Hattie) Purvis, Jr. (1839-1904) was also an active supporter of women’s suffrage in the face of societal challenges. While her views on female enfranchisement are relatively unknown, she represented the second generation of black women suffragettes. She was active in the Pennsylvania Woman Suffrage Association and a member of its executive committee in 1884. Furthemore, between 1883-1900, she was also a notable delegate for the National American Woman Suffrage Association due to her work in the state of Pennsylvania. She was also involved, as a superintendent of work among Colored People for the Women’s Christian Temperance Union. Purvis, Jr. is an important figure who fought for women’s suffrage, especially for black women, that has been hidden in the corners of history. Her contributions, especially those in Pennsylvania, are intrinsically in need of recognition.

Getrude Bustill Mossell.

Getrude Bustill Mosell (1855-1948) was an active journalist that used her platform to highlight the severity of achieving women’s suffrage, especially for women of color. As a journalist, she wrote about these issues of gender and racial justice in The New York Freedom, one of T. Thomas Fortune’s newspapers. Her first publication, titled “Women’s Suffrage,” in 1865 encouraged women to read about the history of the suffrage movement and previous articles of women’s rights. Encouraging a black, female audience, Mosell used the press as an effective way to appeal and inspire black women to contribute to the suffragist movement. In addition, due to her high journalistic status, she was able to relate to middle class views of housewives who were feminists and encourage them to advocate for female enfranchisement. Mosell, through the black press, sought to appeal to demographics that were relational to her intersectional identity of a black female journalist, in order to garner more support for the suffragist movement. 

Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin, 1902.

Jospehine St. Pierre Ruffin (1842-1924) was a major figure in the advancement of women’s enfranchisement in the state of Massachusetts. Also beginning as a journalist, she joined in the work of the Massachusetts Suffrage Association in 1875 and later became affiliated with the American Woman Suffrage Association. In fact, in 1895, she convened the first conference of the National Federation of Afro-American Women, which was probably the first national organization of black women, in Boston. Ruffin was an unequivocal leader in the black women’s club movement, which united black women under the cause of female enfranchisement. She wrote in her black woman’s newspaper, The Women’s Era, utilizing her previous journalistic experience for the progress of women’s rights. In Massachusetts, she urged white women to join with black women to advance the suffragist cause. However, her efforts to unite black and white women’s clubs (and thus combat racial inequalities) were not extremely successful; she experienced discrimination at the Convetion of General Federation of Women’s Clubs in 1900. Nevertheless, Ruffin persisted in her cause of combatting societal institutions such as female disenfranchisement, and realizing the deconstruction of gender and racial injustices.

Josephine Bruce.

Josephine Bruce (1853-1923), was a prominent activist for women’s rights and suffragists in the Washington, D.C. area. With her husband, Representative Blanche K. Bruce, the first U.S. Senator from Mississippi during the Reconstruction Era, Bruce’s influence in the D.C. area was extremely noticeable and impactful. She was a charter member of the Colored Women’s League of D.C. and helped organize the National Organization of Afro-American Women in 1894. Moreover, she headed over the national executive committee of the National Association of Colored Women and was the editor of its publication, Notes. Drawing on journalism as an effective medium of advocating for the necessity of obtaining the right to vote for women (especially of color), Bruce often published articles in Crisis Magazine and In the Voice of the Negro. She also served as the editor of the magazine for the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, after becoming involved in the organization. Concerned by the evident inequality for women of color in American society, Bruce took action, writing for the necessity of women’s rights and suffrage, and reached a far audience due to her high status in our nation’s capital.

Anna J. Cooper, Oberlin College.

Anna J. Cooper (1858-1964), as part of a rich tradition of black writers and intellectuals in the Washington, D.C. area, was a fervent advocate for black feminism and self determination within the women’s suffrage movement. As teacher and principal at the famous M. Street High School in Washington D.C., she became an esteemed clubwoman and social activist who was greatly admired for her belief that the status of black women was central to the progress of the nation. With her influence in the nation’s capital, she also served as a mentor for other suffrage activists, such as Angelina Grimke and Nannie Helen Burroughs. Furthermore, her book, A Voice in the South in 1882, promotes the notion that black women could empower themselves, and have innate capacities for self determination, through education and social uplift. Cooper, with her high status as a writer, used her platform to highlight the necessity of guaranteeing a future in American society where black women were enfranchised and inherently valued.

Susette La Flasche Tibbles (“Bright Eyes”) Courtesy of Nebraska State Historical Society.

Susette La Flesche Tibbles (1854-1903), or “Bright Eyes,” was a prominent Native American activist and suffragist that advocated for Native American rights in the face of barriers created by U.S. federal policy. She is best known for embarking on a series of nationwide and international speaking tours, which were widely successful, to document the adversity faced by Native Americans in American society. Her wish to promote equality for Native Americans in society also extended to the socio-political realm, as she became a staunch advocate for women’s suffrage, especially that of Native American women. Tibbles also served as an expert witness and interpreter in court for Native Americans who wished to sue the government due to various types of grievances. In fact, she served as an interpreter for Standing Bear, who sued the federal government in 1879 and acquired a ruling that allowed Native Americans to choose where they want to live. Tibble’s testimonies about the lack of Native American rights in front of Congress eventually led to the landmark 1887 Dawes Act. “Bright Eyes” was a notable advocate for an intersectional equality of gender, in relation to female enfranchisement, and socio-political Native American rights. 

Adella Hunt Logan.

Adella Hunt Logan (1863-1915), as a professor at Tuskegee Institute, which was headed by Booker T. Washington, made philosophical contributions to rationalizing why black women deserve the right to vote. As a charter member of the Tuskegee Women’s Club and lecturer for conferences at the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, she combined white suffrage rationale with black women’s suffrage to amplify its effects and overall message. This philosophy gained traction in the black women’s suffrage movement, especially as Logan published these ideas in prominent magazines such as Colored American and Crisis. Attacking anti-suffrage movements, she augmented her justification for female enfranchisement with an unequivocally potent rationale; the right to vote for black women would be a undeniable form of protection against rape and sexual abuse for them. Gaining national attention, her arguments for the enfranchisement of black women included core tenets form Mary Ann Shadd Cady, Frances E.W. Harper, and Sojourner Truth. Additionally, she staged lantern slide nights and organized suffrage parades for women’s club members at the beginning of President William McKinely’s re-election parade. Logan used her unique intellectual basis of activism to the advantage of advancing the cause of suffrage, especially for African American women. 

The movement of women’s suffrage was not solely for the purpose of obtaining the right to vote; it was a greater mission for achieving equality and recognition for their valuable character and contributions as women of color in a society that had acted often against their best interests. From the decade of 1880-1890, suffragette women persisted in their efforts to achieve this comprehensive equality for the present and future generations. 

References:

1. Rothberg, Emma.“Susette La Flesche Tibbles (“Bright Eyes”).” National Women’s History Museum. 2020. https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/susette-la-flesche-tibbles-bright-eyes 

2. Mayo, Edith. “African American Women Leaders in the Suffrage Movement.” Suffragist Memorial. 2020. https://suffragistmemorial.org/african-american-women-leaders-in-the-suffrage-movement/

Jacqueline Qiu is a junior at Middlebury College, double majoring in French and Political Science. She is passionate about humanitarianism, women in politics, mental health awareness and advocacy, and French language and literature. On campus, she is the Co-President of the French club and Active Minds Middlebury.

The Importance of Community: Reflecting on an Interview with City Councilwoman Yvonne Flowers

BY: KARA JENSEN, SUMMER 2020 COLLABORATOR AT POWER IN PLACE

A few months ago, on a chilly February morning, I drove down to a small park on the banks of the Hudson River in downtown Poughkeepsie, New York. The photoshoot was taking place in Waryas Park at the John M. Flowers Circle, and we were there that day with John Flowers’ daughter, Poughkeepsie City Councilwoman Yvonne Flowers. I was fortunate enough to be able to interview Councilwoman Flowers—my first time ever interviewing someone—and the experience utterly transformed the way that I thought of local government and community power. In our current political climate, I feel as though it is more important than ever to recognize the importance of local officials in building safe and inclusive communities. 

Councilwoman Flowers’ father, John, was the one who initially inspired and pushed her to get into politics in the first place. Renowned and beloved throughout Poughkeepsie and the larger Dutchess County area, John Flowers lived his life with the conviction that just one person can make a huge difference in someone’s life, and it brought him immense joy to help others in the community. He passed this conviction on to his children, as he actively involved them in his annual Easter Egg Hunts in Waryas Park, Father’s Day Parades, gift giving to veterans, and countless other community strengthening efforts. 

During her time as a City Councilwoman, Yvonne Flowers has put her community first; emphasizing the importance of community spaces and sports programs for kids, all while carrying on her father’s legacy and expanding the number of eggs involved in the annual Easter Egg Hunts to the tens of thousands. Last summer she set up a free basketball program for the kids of Poughkeepsie, who loved it so much that they begged her to continue the program into the school year. Councilwoman Flowers is so passionate about her job and uses her position and energy to build up her community and invest in the well-being and futures of the children. Her passion really shone through in the interview and it was such a privilege to be able to meet and talk with her. 

I interviewed Councilwoman Flowers in February, at a time when COVID-19 was not yet ravaging the United States and the murder of George Floyd had not yet sparked national outrage and protests across the country and world. Thus, we were not able to discuss many of the issues that people have been actively considering in recent weeks. However, as so much of my conversation with Councilwoman Flowers was about her and her family’s commitment to their community, I can’t help but connect her efforts to lift up her community to the larger conversation that is now taking place. As the Black Lives Matter movement has resurged at the forefront of national attention, many protestors and BLM supporters are calling to “Defund the Police.” In essence, this a call to divest the exorbitant amount of money that goes to police departments and invest instead directly into communities and essential services that have been largely neglected such as mental health care, housing, and education [1]. Many proponents of defunding the police want to dismantle law enforcement as we know it and instead invest in community approaches to create safer and more unified communities. I know that this is a huge issue and cannot be encompassed in just a few sentences, but I think the focus on investing resources into communities and ensuring that children have the freedom to join a basketball program and grow up safely is immensely important. 

Reference

[1] Andrew, Scottie. “There's a Growing Call to Defund the Police. Here's What It Means.” CNN. Cable News Network, June 16, 2020. https://www.cnn.com/2020/06/06/us/what-is-defund-police-trnd/index.html.

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Kara Jensen is a rising junior at Vassar College majoring in International Studies and minoring in Hispanic Studies and English. She is involved in the Vassar Alliance of Women in Foreign Affairs, Project Period, and is the Social Coordinator for her Disney-themed a cappella group. She is interested in international development, foreign policy, and human rights.

When Amazing Grace Finds You

An impromptu rendition of Aretha Franklin's Amazing Grace by Councilwoman Adrienne Adams of New York City Council, 28th district. Art by Yang Sun.

BY: SHANIA THOMAS, SUMMER 2020 COLLABORATOR AT POWER IN PLACE

Last year, in an interview with us, Councilmember Adrienne Adams was asked what injustice angered her most. At that time, it was the Eric Garner case. This both surprised me yet was not shocking at all. What were the odds that this interview would mention the same injustice that has been so vividly brought to light over the last week: police brutality and the killing of innocent black people? That is, in turn, what surprised me the least. That even though we had just fought the battle for Garner, a battle fought and lost with the effective acquittal of Officer Pantaleo, we were here again fighting for the right to survive as black Americans.

As the sick irony of it began to subside to the same hopelessness I had felt since I saw the video of a man die from knee strangulation, the sweet sound of Amazing Grace began to play. It was Adam's voice echoing in the cathedral as she paid tribute to the late Aretha Franklin.

As she soared through the hymn, I couldn't help but feel calmed and renewed. This song of hope, salvation, and redemption pierced my broken heart. It is no wonder that all people across the nation, black, white, Christian, or not, feels the power of these words almost as if it were another national anthem. Perhaps its universality comes from us all knowing that each of us, just like our country and the institutions of which she is built, may be broken, but no one and nothing is beyond redemption. Change and the ability to be rescued from the storm of your own wrongdoings is not out of reach. The best is yet to come if we hold on to Grace.

Thinking about how a song that gave me hope for a better future was written by a slave trader turned theologian, a new irony presented itself. Is it not true that fantastic art, especially music, has such a transcending power in its ability to speak in ways that seemed impossible? As council member Adams said, music allowed her "to find [her] voice, not just as a singer, but as an advocate and an activist in [her] community." 

My hope is that we will all use our voices, in every form they come in, to bring about our country's redemption. In the same way, Adam's song helped me, we each have a gift that will give us amazing grace.

Video editing and art by Yang Sun. You can find more of her amazing work on her Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/littlemomentsinart/. 

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Shania Thomas is a rising senior at Brandeis University majoring in Health Policy and Politics with minors in Social Justice Policy and Legal Studies. She is also an Associate Justice for the Student Union and a Central Massachusetts Organizing Lead for the Every Voice Coalition. She has a passion for all things healthcare and believes the injustices against Black Americans to be one of the greatest public health crises of her time.

Speaking with Council Woman Evelyn Clarke about Feminism and Blackness

BY: Hakima SmithStone, SUMMER 2020 COLLABORATOR AT POWER IN PLACE

I always refrained from speaking about feminism because I could never differentiate the movement from the definition. I believe that men and woman are equal so I guess I’m a feminist... but when I look at the feminist moment today, I don’t see a place for me, for women of color that is. When I arrived at college, my first year was my first time attending a predominantly white institution and I learned quickly that there is a difference between the way I as a black woman view womanhood, and the way my white female peers did. When I look back at my life I view it through a lens of race. I think about the way people have treated me because I’m black. I think about the things people have said to me about my hair and my skin. I revisit my old desires and the ways I understood beauty standards as a little black girl. Only then can I begin to understand the way that society has shaped me as a woman. This is where it all becomes blurry to me and I usually find myself asking “did this happen to me because I’m black or because I’m a woman?”

On the way to Port Ewen, New York, to meet town council woman Evelyn Clarke at the Sojourner Truth statue in Ulster County, I thought about the word “feminist” for most of the drive. I thought about Mrs. Clarke and wondered what her life has taught her about feminism, womanhood, blackness and what she was going to say during her interview. I’ve only been a black woman in America for a short amount of time at 21, so I was excited to discuss her experience as a black woman in this country as both a citizen and a politician. I was also a bit nervous that my experiences and options would differ from Clarke’s and that we wouldn’t have much in common because of our age difference.

Evelyn Clarke started off the interview kind of shy as we sat in her living room with all eyes on her. As I asked more and more questions she began to open up, she answered my questions and soon got lost in the memories of her childhood, family, and career. She explained to us her duties on the town council and the road that led her there and to the church. The image she painted of her childhood community in Corning, New York, of her father who became a civil rights leader in their neighborhood, pushed me to understand how much has changed in America as well as what hasn’t. I could see in her eyes that she was empowered by Sojourner Truth’s legacy and was proud of the Truth statue that stood tall in the center of her town. I learned about Truth’s childhood in slavery and how she became a freed woman who would go on to help the suffragettes and meet American heroes like Fredrick Douglass. I thought to myself, “everyone should know that many of the suffragettes only wanted the vote for white woman and that Truth fought against this by supporting both the suffragette movement and the abolitionist movement.” But this is not the feminist history most of us are taught in school. As our discussion moved from Evelyn’s life to Sojourner’s we found that Truth’s life represented the struggles of intersectionality for black women when it comes to feminism. Clarke explained that Truth was focused on survival and avoiding slavery while white women were focused on issues that Truth didn’t have time to be worried about. As our conversation went on I could see that there might be a generational divide amongst black women when it comes to the idea of feminism, but there is also a common thread that connects us. It’s the same thing that connects us to women like Sojourner Truth, it’s the desire to be a part and to attain self-validation and love.

Evelyn Clarke ended her interview by saying that black Americans have built America and deserve to be a part of all aspects of the country. She is a great example of a woman in politics who has worked hard to be a part of her community and ultimately a part of this country. She gives a voice to the people of her community.